【AEON】你是“局外人”吗？

The fear of ‘alienation’ from a perceived state of harmony has a long and winding history. Western culture is replete with stories of expulsion from paradise and a yearning to return, from Adam and Eve’s departure from the Garden of Eden to the epic journey of Odysseus back to Ithaca. In the modern era, ‘alienation’ really came into its own as a talismanic term in the 1950s and ’60s. At the time, the United States was becoming increasingly affluent, and earlier markers of oppression – poverty, inequality, social immobility, religious persecution – appeared to be on the wane. Commentators and intellectuals needed a new way to characterise and explain discontent. Google’s Ngram viewer, which tracks the incidence of words in English-language books, shows ‘alienation’ rising spectacularly from 1958 to its height in 1974. But since then it has dropped like a stone. Why? Does the lexical decline of alienation suggest that the condition itself has been conquered – or merely that the context in which it made sense has now changed beyond recognition?

人们对从和谐状态“异化”的恐惧有着漫长而曲折的历史。从亚当、夏娃被逐出伊甸园到奥德修斯回到伊萨卡的史诗之旅，西方文化中，关于驱逐与回归的故事比比皆是。进入现代，尤其是上世纪五六十年代，“异化”一词在上世纪成为了一个类似护身符的术语。那时的美国正变得越来越富裕，贫困人口、社会不公、阶层固化和宗教迫害这些先前面临的压迫似乎都不再是困扰。评论家和知识分子需要一种新的方式来表达他们的不满情绪。使用谷歌Ngram viewer浏览器在英文书籍中搜索“异化”一词，可以发现这个词的频率从1958年开始呈现爆破式增长，1974年到达顶峰，随后却以迅雷不急掩耳之势下降。这是为什么呢？是因为“异化”现象本身已经不复存在，还是仅仅因为它使用的语境如今已经完全发生改变？

Lexical [ˈleksɪkl] adj. connected with the words of a language词汇的；字汇的

The word alienation derives from the Latin verb alienare – to take away, remove, make a thing belong to another. It had a wide variety of earlier uses, including the transfer of property, estrangement from God, a mental disorder and interpersonal discord (‘alienation of affection’ even became a legal ground for divorce). Philosophers and theologians from Augustine to Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Søren Kierkegaard had mulled over its metaphysical and spiritual implication s. Later, modern sociologists such as Émile Durkheim, Georg Simmel and Max Weber worried that alienation was a byproduct of a post-industrial society. It could be seen in widespread ‘anomie’, the ‘tragedy of culture’, and the ‘iron cage’ of bureaucratic rationalisation.

“异化”的英文“alienate”来源于拉丁语 “alienare”（意为带走，去除，让渡）。 它在早期有许多的含义，包括财产转移，人神殊途，精神障碍和人际关系不和（“感情疏远”甚至成为离婚的合法依据）。 从奥古斯丁到让·雅克·卢梭和索伦·克尔凯廓尔，无论是神学家还是哲学家都曾仔细研究它的形而上学和精神 意义 。后来，埃米尔·涂尔干、格奥尔格·齐美尔和马克斯·韦伯等现代社会学家都担忧“异化”可能成为后工业社会的 副产品 。涂尔干的“失范”、齐美尔的“文化悲剧论”以及马克斯·韦伯提出的官僚制度下的 “铁笼”，这些广为流传的概念其实都是对“异化”的探讨。

注：涂尔干的“失范”：涂尔干认为，社会分工的发展快于这种分工所要求的道德基础，这样，社会的某些方面便受到不适当的控制，从而导致失范。涂尔干还把失范与现代社会的病态相联系。例如，他在《自杀论》一书特别研究了失范型的自杀。失范型自杀就是在社会规范对什么事情可以去做、什么事情不可以去做还处于摇摆不定的状态时，人们陷入矛盾状态之中而容易引起的一种自杀。他认为，无论是经济萧条时期还是经济繁荣时期，自杀事件都会有所增加，因为上述两个时期均置人们于一种新的社会环境，使他们原有的准则和规范失去了作用，生活变得漫无目的，自杀便容易发生。

齐美尔的“文化悲剧论”：即主观文化和客观文化理论。主观文化是指人类自身道德水平自己人性的发展，而客观文化是人类创造的一切为人类精神或物质需求服务的存在，比如游戏，电影，漫画，小说等等。齐美尔认为人类自身的发展越来越受到客观文化的限制停滞不前，千年前人类修养道德水平和现在区别不大，但是客观文化已经飞速的发展，人类被自身创造的东西所奴役而忽视自身思想的进步。

韦伯的“理性铁笼”隐喻是西方韦伯学的一个基本概念。理性铁笼预示着现代人的命运，从“宗教-神本位”的理性主义解脱出来的现代人，因为失去了灵魂与心灵的依托，使得整个生活状态处于没有根的“漂浮状态”，职业的分化造就了一批“没有灵魂的专家”，而完全专业化、非人格化的资本主义社会运作，使得现代人受到了“为赚钱而赚钱”的经济秩序的奴役，同时还受到了科层制普遍化的奴役，人不仅成为只顾赚钱的行尸走肉，也成为组织机器中的无生命螺丝钉。Mr. Power（权力先生）与Ms. Money（金钱小姐）互为经纬，形成了现代人的理性“铁笼”。

Estrangement [ɪˈstreɪndʒmənt] n. Estrangement is the state of being estranged from someone or the length of time for which you are estranged. 疏远;疏远期;分居（期）

Implication [ɪm.plɪ'keɪ.ʃən] n.  when you seem to suggest something without saying it directly 含意；暗指，暗示

After the Second World War, alienation came to betoken a near-universal spiritual and psychological malaise . Existentialist philosophers such as Jean-Paul Sartre used it to describe a fundamental aspect of the human condition. Novelists such as Albert Camus, the author of The Stranger (1942), demonstrated its effects in the indifferent numbness of casual violence. By the time J D Salinger released his novel The Catcher in the Rye (1951), a chronicle of adolescent estrangement featuring the anti-hero Holden Caulfield, alienation was invoked to explain everything from juvenile delinquency and galloping divorce rates to voter apathy and substance abuse. The term was taken to define the fundamental pathology of modern life.

第二次世界大战后，“异化”表现为一种近乎普遍的精神和心理上的痼疾。存在主义哲学家，如让·保罗·萨特，用它来描述人类基本的生存状态。小说家，如《局外人》（The Stranger ，1942）的作者阿尔贝·加缪在作品中描述了在面对突如其来的暴力时，人们无动于衷、麻木不仁的表现。塞林格1951年发表了小说《麦田里的守望者》（The Catcher in the Rye ）。这部小说塑造了一位反英雄的主人公形象，霍尔顿·考菲尔德（Holden Caulfield）是一位与世界格格不入的少年，青少年 犯罪 、离婚率飙升、政治冷漠、药物滥用等社会现象都可以用“异化”来解释，这个词表现了现代生活的基本 病态 。

Malaise [məˈleɪz] n. Malaise is a state in which there is something wrong with a society or group, for which there does not seem to be a quick or easy solution. (社会或群体的)痼疾

Galloping ['gæl.ə.pɪŋ] adj. increasing or developing at a very fast and often uncontrollable rate （常指以失控的速度）快速增加的，飞速发展的

Apathy ['æp.ə.θi] n. when someone shows no interest or energy and is unwilling to take action, especially over something important 无兴趣，懈怠；（尤指对重要事情的）漠不关心，无动于衷

Pathology [pə'θɒl.ə.dʒi] n. the scientific study of disease 病理学

However, it was the influence of Karl Marx that eventually transformed alienation from indefinable malaise to concrete social condition. In his so-called Paris Manuscripts, written in 1844 but only discovered between the two world wars, Marx developed a three- pronged critique of the alienation of labour – the source, he claimed, of all other alienations in the capitalist world. In Marx’s taxonomy of alienation, first came the worker’s loss of control over the product of his or her labour, which was sold as a commodity in the marketplace for the profit of the capitalist. Second was his or her estrangement from the creative process of labouring itself; before the radical division of labour and inhumane efficiency of the assembly line, work was not a mere means of survival, but something in which pre-capitalist artisans found intrinsic reward. The third and final kind of alienation involves quash ing the collective solidarity of the community, what Marx called human’s ‘species being’, and which was lost with the rise of competitive individualism.

然而，卡尔·马克思（Karl Marx）最终将“异化”的含义从很难被定义的不适感受转变为对具体社会状况的描述。1844年，《巴黎手稿》问世，但直到一战后才被人发现。在这部著作中，马克思从三个方面阐述了劳动的异化，他认为资本主义世界中的“异化”都来源于劳动异化。在马克思的 分类 中，“异化”首先表现为劳动产品的异化：工人失去对他或她的劳动产品的所有权，产品在市场上作为商品出售，其利润为资本家所有。其次是劳动过程的异化：此前劳动能够满足人的内在需求，劳动过程也是愉悦的，但随着社会分工的发展，流水线高效率的要求惨无人道，劳动变成了一种被迫的谋生手段。第三种也是最后一种“异化”是劳动者类本质的异化：包括社群集体团结的 瓦解 ，随着具有竞争色彩的个人主义兴起而消失。

注：人的本质源于劳动，这是马克思所坚持的。人的本质是在劳动中实现的，而且劳动也实现了人同动物的根本区别。与动物的那种被动的、出于本能的适应自然环境不同，人可以根据自己的目的和需要有意识地、主动地改造自然，使用自己生产出来的工具来从事劳动实践，从而通过获取生活资料来实现自己的生命存在，从而实现了按照自己的意志改造自然的目的，将自己的生命与生存从自然的权威支配下得到了挣脱和解放，挣脱了本能生命活动的束缚并超越了它，从而按照自己的意志去支配和主宰自身作为生命活动的主体。由此，马克思确认了劳动构成了人的本质。而在资本主义条件下，人的本质伴随着被异化的劳动并异化。

-pronged A two-pronged or three-pronged attack, plan, or approach has two or three parts. 分…部分的

Taxonomy [tæk'sɒn.ə.mi] n. a system for naming and organizing things, especially plants and animals, into groups which share similar qualities 分类学；生物分类学

Quash [kwɒʃ] v. to forcefully stop something that you do not want to happen 镇压，平息

On the strength of these insights, a school of thought known as ‘Marxist Humanism’ rose to prominence in the 1960s. This moved Marxism’s centre of gravity away from structures of economic exploitation and towards broader questions of lived experience. Marxist Humanism was advanced by thinkers such as Erich Fromm, who questioned Marx’s status as a scientific analyst of historical facts, and preferred to use his early writings as a way of probing how capitalism distorts the nature of human relations.

在马克思的理论基础上，一种被称为“马克思人本主义”（Marxist Humanism）的思想流派发展起来，在20世纪60年代盛极一时。马克思主义的核心是经济剥削，而人本主义马克思主义则关注更广泛的生活经验问题。“马克思的人本主义”是由埃里希·弗洛姆等思想家提出的。弗洛姆认为马克思作为历史事实的科学分析者，有一定的局限性，并且喜欢以马克思早期作品为依据，探讨资本主义如何扭曲人类关系的本质。

The prevailing assumption behind all of these accounts was that feeling estranged – whether from one’s personal or communal identity, one’s creations, or the human species as a whole – was a reason for profound dismay. Alienation could suggest, among other things, the domination of the subject by the object, the self by the other, the organic by the mechanical, and the living by the dead. Understood psychologically, socially, religiously or philosophically, it was a painful obstacle to feeling whole or at one with the world. Being settled in an identity and comfortable in one’s skin were taken as preferable to being rootless, dispossessed or self-fractured. For the lucky few cosmopolitan s, rootlessness might have meant being at home everywhere – but for those who felt like permanent exiles, it meant being at home nowhere.

这些“异化”理论都基于一个共同的假设——不论是个人与集体的异化，还是劳动产品与人类的异化，都会让人感到极度恐慌。“异化”可以表现为客体对主体、他人对自我、机械对有机体以及死者对生者的支配。从心理学、社会学、宗教学或哲学的角度来看，异化都让人感到痛苦，它让人难以感受到自身的完整性，也难以融入这个世界。比起无家可归、无依无靠或自我断裂（self-fractured），人们显然更喜欢拥有固定的身份，能自如地表达与交往。对于少数幸运的 世界主义者 来说，漂泊可能意味着四海为家，但对于那些感觉像是永久流亡的人来说，这意味着无家可归。

Conversely, overcoming alienation was accompanied by the achievement of self-transparency, authenticity, personal integrity and solidarity. Stories from the Bible and mythology, when viewed from the end-point of the tale, often cast the years of wandering as what Christian doctrine called a felix culpa or ‘fortunate fall’. Perhaps alienation could be justified as an episode in a longer arc of redemption , in which the loss of naïve unity enables us to attain a higher, more reflective form of wholeness. Alienation could be interpreted in terms of a kind of theodicy, in which partial evil serves a more all-embracing good.

相反，克服“异化”的过程其实是追求自我透明、自我真实、人格完整和集体团结的过程。知道结局后再看《圣经》和神话中的故事，那些漂泊的日子在基督教教义中被称为“幸运的堕落”（felix culpa or ‘fortunate fall’）。“异化”也许是 救赎 轮回中的一段必经之路，丧失天真恰恰意味着我们达到了更高层次、更具有反思性的完整人格。“异化”可以用 神正论 来解释，即恶的存在是为了达到更加包容的善。

注：神正论：神权之所以有统治世界的权利，不仅仅根植于神人之间的契约，而且有更高方面的支持，这种支持显然来自超验的价值，从正义论的角度来看，它体现的乃是一种超验的正义。

Arc [ɑ:k] n.the shape of part of a circle, or other curved line 弧；弧状；弧线；弧形

Redemption [rɪ'demp.ʃən] n.(especially in Christianity) when someone is saved from evil, suffering, etc. （尤指基督教的）拯救，赎罪，救赎

Yet the state of alienation remained the ‘unhappy consciousness’, in the words of G W F Hegel in The Phenomenology of Spirit (1807). It was still inferior to either pre-lapsarian grace or post-lapsarian redemption. Whatever its function in the larger narrative, its victims still yearned for a homecoming that would end their estrangement.

然而，在黑格尔的《精神现象学》（1807）中，“异化”的表述仍然是“苦恼意识”。它既不如人堕落前的恩典（pre-lapsarian grace），也不如人堕落后的救赎（post-lapsarian redemption）。不管“异化”在宏观层面发挥什么作用，“异化”的受害者仍然渴望用“回归”结束他们的“流离失所”。

注：黑格尔认为，所谓的异化就是活动主体在自身的发展过程中由于自身的矛盾而产生出自己的对立面，即客体。然而客体又作为一种异己的和外在的力量反过来对主体进行压制和束缚，这就是异化的过程。黑格尔的异化理论本身具有一个其自身的发展过程。

So why aren’t we ‘alienated’ anymore? How did this broad consensus lose its hegemonic power in the 1970s? What made the American historian David Steigerwald wonder in 2011: ‘Where have you gone, Holden Caulfield?’ Was it fatigue with a concept whose explanatory power and emotional charge had been spent? Was it the realisation that other, unrelated sources of oppression were yet to be vanquish ed? Or had alienation become a self-indulgent luxury, now that living standards were not necessarily rising from one generation to the next?

那么为什么我们不再“异化”了呢？“异化”这个广泛的共识是如何在20世纪70年代失去统治地位的？ 是什么让美国历史学家大卫·施泰格瓦尔德在2011年高呼：“霍尔顿·考菲尔德，你到哪里去了？”这个概念已经无法承载原有的情感，无法解释原先代表的事物了吗？还是人们发现了其他还未被消除的压抑情感？ 亦或是“异化”在上一代人中是很常见的，但这一代，“异化”却成为了奢侈的自我放纵？

Vanquish ['væŋ.kwɪʃ] v. to defeat an opponent, especially in war （尤指战争中）击败，使溃败

These factors almost certainly played a part; but it’s worth dwelling on three key historical turning points. The first comes from within the discourse of Marxist Humanism itself. Earlier, its exponent s had seized upon alienation as a promising antidote to the pseudo-scientistic pretensions and fetishism of the economy, which they believed discredited the Soviet version of ‘dialectical materialism’. Ironically, however, just as alienation was rising to prominence among Marxists in the 1960s, another anxiety was emerging to challenge its appeal. According to its critics, late-capitalist society offered the subjugated a sort of pseudo-contentment, a simulacrum of a non-alienated utopia, a palliative for their condition that undermined the class struggle.

这些因素虽然起了一部分作用; 但三个关键的历史转折点才是更值得 深入探讨 的。第一个来自马克思人本主义本身的主张。它早期的 倡导者 们把“异化”视为伪科学主义、商品经济 拜物教 的解毒剂，能为苏联“辩证唯物主义”正名。然而，具有讽刺意味的是，正当20世纪60年代“异化”在马克思主义者中大行其道之时，另一种反对它的声音出现了。根据批评者的说法，晚期资本主义社会为征服者提供了一种虚假的满足感，用来缓解阶级斗争，就像身处乌托邦之中。

注：能指和所指是语言学上的一对概念，能指意为语言文字的声音，形象;所指则是语言的意义本身。按照语言学家或者哲学家们的划分，人们试图通过语言表达出来的东西叫"所指"，而语言实际传达出来的东西叫"能指"。传统的观点认为所指和能指是精确相对应的，因而符号通过与存在物的符合获得价值。而现在人们越来越发现，由于历史，学科和经验的不同，所指和能指并不总是一一对应的方式，我们说一句话，写下一句诗的同时，往往要以别的词汇或者句子作为参照，为了了解所指，我们总是要不断借助其他的能指，这样所指的意义便在这种不断借用其他能指的过程中被"延宕"，"丰满"，"变异"了。既然从能指的差异无法导出与所指的固定联系，既然所指不在场，我们就不能通过能指达到所指，无法从语言的表述系统达到世界的本体。如此，不仅语言的固定结构不复存在，结构主义从各种文化现象的固定结构来证明的逻各斯中心主义也因之而消解。在资本主义生产过程中，劳动创造的对象产生异化，异化就是劳动者的主体地位的丧失，资本主义几百年的发展史就是异化逐步深化的历史。凭借消费经济和新传媒的力量，资本不仅控制了劳动，而且控制了劳动者的生活或者说消费。结构主义和后结构主义引导我们看到异化的步步深入直至真正的主体异化。我们需要做到的是，在当下的物质劳动和精神劳动中，实现马克思所说“在对象世界的异化存在中扬弃对象世界而现实地占有自己的对象性本质”。

Dwell [dwel] v. to keep thinking or talking about something, especially something bad or unpleasant 老是想着，一直在说（尤指不好或令人不快之事）

Exponent [ɪk'spəʊ.nənt] n. a person who supports an idea or belief or performs an activity （想法或信仰）拥护者，鼓吹者；某活动的）能手

Antidote ['æn.ti.dəʊt] n. a way of preventing or acting against something bad 矫正方法；缓解办法；对抗手段

Palliative ['pæl.i.ə.tɪv] n. something that makes a problem seem less serious but does not solve the problem or make it disappear 权宜之计；缓冲剂；消极措施

What was needed was more discomfort with the world and less feeling at home in it

走出舒适圈，对外界多一些批判性的思考

This is what the Frankfurt School theorists Max Horkheimer and Theodor W Adorno called ‘the culture industry’: the way that Hegel’s ‘unhappy consciousness’ had been masked by the pleasures of mass culture and consumption, preventing its victims from feeling the pang s of their true condition. In One-Dimensional Man (1964), the philosopher Herbert Marcuse lamented the deadening effects of ‘advanced industrial civilisation’. ‘[In] its productivity and efficiency, its capacity to increase and spread comforts, to turn waste into need, and destruction into construction,’ he wrote, ‘the extent to which this civilisation transforms the object world into an extension of man’s mind and body makes the very notion of alienation questionable.’

这就是法兰克福学派理论家马克斯·霍克海默和对迪奥多·阿多诺所说的“文化工业”：黑格尔的“苦恼意识”被大众文化和大众消费的乐趣所掩盖，人们无法感受到自身 痛苦 的真实境况。在《单向度的人》（1964）中，哲学家赫伯特·马尔库塞批判了“先进的工业文明”让人钝化。他写道：“这种文明的生产力和效率极高，能增加和传播使生活舒适的事物，具有变废为宝和化腐朽神奇的能力，还在很大程度上将客观世界转化为人类心灵和身体的延伸，它的这些特点都使“异化”这一特定概念本身成了问题。”

Pang [pæŋ] n.a sudden sharp feeling, especially of painful emotion 一阵剧痛；（尤指）悲痛

The poet and playwright Bertolt Brecht, a committed Marxist, had anticipated this bleak assessment of culture. His notion of ‘epic theatre’ sought to reverse the ideological grip of traditional, ‘culinary theatre’, which Brecht despised for the way it fostered empathetic identification with dramatic characters. In response, Brecht developed what he called a Verfremdungseffekt or ‘estrangement effect’ to disrupt precisely this pattern (the German Verfremdung was a variant of Entfremdung, the term normally translated as alienation). Actors refused to conceal the fact that they were acting, and they frequently breached the fourth wall separating the stage from the audience in order to foreground the artifice of the production.

诗人兼剧作家贝尔托·布莱希特是一位坚定的马克思主义者，他预料到了这种文化会受到无情的批判。他的“史诗剧场”概念就试图扭转传统的“烹饪剧场”（culinary theatre）的思想束缚。“烹饪剧场”总是试图让观众贴近角色，从而引发共鸣。对此，布莱希特嗤之以鼻，并提出了所谓“间离效果”（Verfremdungseffekt or ‘estrangement effect’）来打破这种模式（德语的Verfremdung是Entfremdung的一个变体，这个术语通常被翻译为异化）。即演员们毫不掩饰表演的痕迹，并且经常突破将舞台与观众席隔开的“第四面墙”，以更好地呈现表演效果。

By undermining the realist illusion and preventing emotional identification with characters, Brecht de-familiarised the familiar, and forced the audience to reflect critically on unjust conditions beyond the world of art. What was needed, he argued, was more discomfort with the world and less feeling at home in it – more reflective estrangement and less aesthetic comfort food. At the very least, that’s what was required until the spell of false consciousness was broken, phoney gratifications revealed for what they were, and our true state of alienation exposed so as to open the path to true healing.

布莱希特打破了舞台上的现实主义幻觉，极力阻止观众与剧中人物产生情感上的认同，他让观众重新审视过去熟悉的东西，对艺术世界以外不公正的现象进行批判反思。他认为，人们应该走出舒适圈，对外界多一些批判性思考，增加独立反思的时间，减少审美上的安慰。至少，直到工业文明的幻象破灭和 虚假的 满足感幻灭之前，批判思考才是人类社会需要的。只有真实的异化状态暴露出来，人类才能真正得到治愈。

Phoney ['fəʊ.ni] adj. not sincere or not real 虚伪的；假冒的，伪造的

Such arguments were still rooted in the idea that alienation was a pathological condition, one that ultimately needed to be redress ed. But what if the alleged healing was itself ideological? This more radical riposte to the notion of alienation emerged in the theories that came to be called ‘post-structuralism’. Despite all their complexities and diversity, the thinkers within this rubric shared a common distrust of a key assumption: that a unified, holistic self or community was inherently superior to their opposites.

这样的论点仍然是基于“异化”是一种需要被 纠正 的病态这一前提。但如果所谓的治愈就是“异化”本身呢？后结构主义对“异化”概念进行了更激进的反击。尽管观点复杂各异，但“后结构主义”的思想家们都对一个关键的假设表现出怀疑：个体或集体的统一性和 完整性 本就优于差异性和分散性。

Redress [rɪ'dres] v. to put right a wrong or give payment for a wrong that has been done 纠正，矫正；补偿，向…赔偿损失

Holistic [həʊ'lɪs.tɪk] adj. dealing with or treating the whole of something or someone and not just a part 整体的，全面的

A rejection of unity can be seen in the so-called ‘linguistic turn’ in the humanities. This began to loom in the 1970s and took inspiration from many different theories of language: ordinary language philosophy, hermeneutics , universal pragmatics, speech-act theory and the ‘deconstruction’ of Jacques Derrida and Paul de Man. This last movement was viewed as the vanguard of post-structuralism, and underpinned by a suspicion of the universal, knowing human subject which sat at the heart of traditional humanism. Proponents doubted that we could grasp a ‘reality’ unfiltered by culture and language. And if there were no access to reality without the welter of linguistic ambiguities and differences, it must also be impossible to bridge the gap between consciousness and being, thought and its objects, humans and the world they had created. What Friedrich Nietzsche had called ‘the prison-house of language’ offered no escape, or to put it in the oft-cited terms of Derrida, ‘there is no outside-text’. Rather than spurring an end to alienation, then, the linguistic turn suggested there was no alternative.

从20世纪70年代起，从人文科学的所谓“语言学转向”（linguistic turn）中便可以看到其对统一性的抛弃。它从许多不同的语言理论中获得启发：普通语言哲学、 解释学 、普遍语用学、言语行为理论等。其中雅克· 德里达（Jacques Derrida）和保罗·德曼（Paul de Man）的“解构主义”更被视为“后结构主义”的先锋，对一个普遍的、了解人类的学科是否存在这一传统人文主义是否存在这一核心问题表示质疑。支持者对人是否能够掌握一种未被文化和语言所过滤的“现实”表示怀疑。如果没有语言的各种意义和表述，人类就无法认知现实，那么意识和存在、思想和承载它的客体、人类和他们所创造的世界之间的鸿沟也不可能弥合。这是弗里德里希·尼采所说的“语言的牢笼”（the prison-house of language），或者用德里达经常引用的话来说就是“文本之外，别无他物”。然而， 语言学的转向并没有终结人的异化，反而更加无所遁形。

Welter ['wel.tər] n. a large and especially badly organized number of things 杂乱的一堆东西，乱七八糟的一堆东西

Alienation also denotes the corrosion of a coherent, autonomous self, a strong and sovereign entity

“异化”还表示一个连贯、自治、强大和至高无上的实体的衰亡

Around this time, the currents of psychoanalysis were also shifting. Jacques Lacan’s linguistic reading of Sigmund Freud cast doubt on the value of individual autonomy and integrity. Lacan argued that Freud’s ideal of ‘the whole man’ as a model of healthy development could be traced to the lingering memory of a pre-linguistic period in infantile development, which Lacan called ‘the mirror stage’. Produced by the child’s glee at glimpsing its bodily image distinct from its mother, the mirror stage fed a nostalgia for an imaginary paradise of narcissistic bliss. This reading was reminiscent of how the existentialists cast alienation as inherent in the human condition; but note how its negative valence had been reversed. For now, accepting fissure s in the human condition, and abandoning fantasies of reconciliation, redemption and integration, were a mark of maturation and a healthy acceptance of the human condition. With entry into language, or what Lacan called ‘the symbolic’, the gap between signifier and signified became an expression of the split inherent in human consciousness.

同时，精神分析学的潮流也发生了转向。雅克·拉康对西格蒙德·弗洛伊德进行了语言学的解读，他怀疑个人自主性和完整性是否有价值。拉康认为，弗洛伊德所提出 的“完全的人”（the whole man）作为健康发展的模型，可以追溯到婴儿的前语言时期。拉康称之为“镜像阶段”。孩子因瞥见自己与母亲截然不同的身体形象而产生的欢乐，让镜像阶段充斥着对虚构的自我陶醉的想象界。这种解读让人联想到存在主义学家曾经认为“异化”是人类的一种本性;但请注意它的负面价值是如何被转化的。目前，接受人类生活状况的 断层 ，放弃对和解、救赎和融合的幻想，是一个人成熟的标志，也是最好的应对策略。随着语言的介入，或者说进入拉康所谓的“象征界”，能指和所指之间的差异就成了人类意识中固有的分裂的外在表现。

Nostalgia [nɒs'tæl.dʒə] n. a feeling of pleasure and sometimes slight sadness at the same time as you think about things that happened in the past 对往事的怀念，怀旧，念旧

Fissure ['fɪʃ.ər] n. a deep narrow crack in rock or the earth （岩石或土地的）裂缝，裂隙

Post-structuralism had its critics, including the second-generation Frankfurt School philosopher Jürgen Habermas. But such thinkers added to the skepticism by rejecting the Marxist Humanist claim that the alienation of labour was at the root of all social pathologies. Following his own interpretation of the linguistic turn, Habermas argued that, alongside the dialectic of labour, there was also a dialectic of communication. Humans interacted through symbolic media that could produce agreement about meanings and intentions, or pathologies of misunderstanding. Interaction between people was not the same as the subject’s fashioning of the material world into objects for use or consumption.

第二代法兰克福学派哲学家尤尔根·哈贝马斯（Jürgen Habermas）反对后结构主义。这些思想家否定马克思人本主义学家关于劳动的异化是所有社会病态的根源的主张。哈贝马斯根据自己对语言学转向的解释，认为除了劳动辩证法以外，还有一种沟通辩证法。人类通过符号媒介进行互动，在这个过程中，可能产生对意义和意图的一致性看法，也可能造成误解。毕竟，人与人之间的互动不同于主客体之间的关系，主体可以根据自己的使用和消费需求，将物质世界塑造成客体。

The old Marxist formula of a cultural ‘superstructure’ – entirely dependent on an economic ‘substructure’ – had mistakenly prioritised the production of material goods as the essential model of human action. Ending capitalist economic exploitation was a laudable goal, but other sources of conflict – political, religious, cultural and the like – couldn’t be addressed by ending the alienation of labour. Nor could they be resolved by the homecoming of an alienated subject to his or her pre-alienated wholeness, because they relied on ‘wholeness’ being forever in the future. Thus, along with his post-structuralist opponents, Habermas and his followers abandoned the assumption that de-alienation was a mark of an emancipated society.

“经济基础”决定 “上层建筑”这一古老的马克思主义公式，错误地将物质资料生产作为人类的基本行为模式。虽然结束资本主义经济剥削这个目标值得赞扬，但即使劳动异化结束了，政治、宗教、文化等方面的冲突还是无法解决。同样，这些冲突也不能靠被异化的主体回归其异化前所属的整体来解决，因为他们在未来将永远依赖“整体性”。因此，哈贝马斯及其追随者与他们的反对者—后结构主义学者都不再将“去异化”（de-alienation）作为一个社会 解放 的标志。

Emancipate [ɪ'mænt.sɪ.peɪt] v. to give people social or political freedom and rights 解放；给予人们政治或社会的自由权利

One additional cause of the waning popularity of alienation deserves further attention. Hidden in the word itself is an anxiety about the power of the other, the foreigner, the stranger – in short, ‘the alien’. This figure, it is implied, threatens to invade, pollute and disrupt the purity of the homogeneous individual or group. And this, at a time of global migration on a massive scale – generated by political unrest, economic desperation or natural disasters – arouses fears that are never far from the surface of most enduring communities. Alienation has come to suggest not only the loss of control over what one has produced or the exile from one’s traditions or tribal integrity; it also denotes the corrosion of a coherent, autonomous self, a strong and sovereign entity that has mastered or abjected its internal otherness. It implies the superiority of the domestic over the foreign, the friend over the stranger, the settled over the vagabond.

“异化”的热度下降的另一个原因更值得关注。这个词本身隐含着对外来者力量的焦虑，不论是他人、外国人还是陌生人。它暗示着外来者会带来威胁，他们可能会侵入、污染和破坏同质个体或群体纯洁性。在政治动荡、经济衰败或自然灾害引发大规模全球移民的时期，“异化”引起了人们的恐慌（这种恐慌从未远离饱经灾难的人群）。“异化”已经不仅仅意味着失去对自己制造的产品的控制或远离自己所属的传统或种族，也表示一个主宰或拒绝内在他者的、连贯、自治、强大和至高无上的实体的衰亡。“异化”意味着国内优于国外、朋友优于陌生人、定居者优于 流浪者 。

Vagabond ['væg.ə.bɒnd] n. a person who has no home and usually no job, and who travels from place to place 流浪者；（通常指）无业游民

But in an era of fluid modernity, defined by incessant change, why should sameness and identity be preferred over otherness and difference? What if the purity of the community and the self came under suspicion as ideologies of restriction and exclusion? What if hybridity came to be preferred to polar oppositions and categorical distinctions? What if hospitality to the alien was privileged over the imperative to defend the homeland against alleged intruders? Accepting the stranger within, the other in the self, could then be credited as a sign of maturity. The weakening of the discourse of alienation reflected these changes in the cultural climate.

但是在流动性极强的现代，变化是 主旋律 。为什么同一性就优于差异性呢？如果群体和自我的纯洁性被当成保护主义和盲目排外怎么办呢？如果人们更愿意接受多样性，而非极端对立和绝对差异呢？ 如果面对外来侵略者，不是保卫家园而是对其待之以礼的观念占了上风，那该怎么办？ 能够接纳群体中的陌生人以及自我的另一面也是成熟的标志。“异化”的式微反映了文化氛围的变化。

Incessant [ɪn'ses.ənt] adj. never stopping, especially in an annoying or unpleasant way 连续不断的，没完没了的

When the Left embraced tolerance of difference, it grew wary of stigmatising the alien – including the alien within

左翼包容差异，对外来者的歧视也变得越来越小心翼翼，即使是本国的外来移民也不轻易责难

Of course, in an increasingly unsettled world, it would be foolish to claim that literal homelessness and displacement should be celebrated as inherent values in themselves. There is simply too much suffering caused by forced migration, and too much stress involved in the assimilation of those who have lost their homes under duress. For all its potential to sow division, identity politics might still reflect a justifiable search for roots and community. But it’s also true that many now celebrate the freedom to alter identities rather than meekly accept them, and that post-identitarian multiplicity is enjoying a renewal. Such discourses repudiate or at least complicate a simple denunciation of alienation from wholeness.

当然，在一个日益动荡不安的世界里，将所谓的无家可归和流离失所应作为人本身的内在价值无疑是愚蠢的。被迫移民造成的痛苦罄竹难书，企图同化那些被迫失去家园的人简直难如登天。尽管有可能埋下分裂的祸根，但身份认同政治仍能反映出一种对根和共同体的合理性追求。然而，现在也有许多人并不接受某种特定的身份，而是为拥有改变身份的自由而欢欣鼓舞。后身份主义多样性正在迎来一个全新的时代。这些言论说明了不可简单 谴责 “从整体中的异化”，情况远远要复杂。

Repudiate [rɪ'pju:.di.eɪt] v. to refuse to accept something or someone as true, good or reasonable 拒绝，不接受；否认；批驳

This change is most clearly registered in political terms. In the heyday of Marxist Humanism, alienation could be understood in terms of the capitalist mode of production, which thwarted the possibility of unalienated labour. But eventually the Left came to de-emphasise class, for better or worse, and substitute questions of culture for those of production. When Leftist politics embraced tolerance of difference, it grew wary of stigmatising the alien – including the alien within. Rather than yearning for ‘well-rounded wholeness’ or a comforting immersion in the warm bath of communal uniformity, this political shift meant recognising the virtues of protean personal identities and diasporic dispersion.

这种变化在政治上表现得最为明显。在马克思的人本主义的鼎盛时期，“异化”可以从资本主义生产方式的角度来理解，一切劳动都是被异化的。 但后来左派开始淡化阶级概念，并或好或坏地用文化问题替代生产问题。当左派政治在包容差异时，它对外来者的歧视也变得越来越小心翼翼，包括本国的外来移民。这种政治转变并不是因为渴望“全面的整体性”，也不是留恋公共统一体，而是意味着已经认识到个体身份多样化和分散的差异性的优点。

Protean [prəʊ'ti:.ən] adj. easily and continuously changing; variable 变化多端的，多变的

Hostility to the alien ‘other’, both without and within, has now migrated to the populist Right. Those who most loudly broadcast their alienation today, infusing it with rage and resentment, are likely to be from once-comfortable and hegemonic segments of the population. They feel threatened by the growing erosion of their status in a society that they remember – or at least claim to remember – as homogeneous, integrated and settled. Religious, ethnic, national and gender identities become more rigidly defended against perceived erosion. Many people panic when faced with fluid selves that embrace rather than bemoan the ‘alien’ within – expressed, for example, in their passionate resistance to transgender identity. And they are even more unnerved by the literal arrival of non-citizen ‘aliens’, legal as well as illegal, who threaten their alleged ethnic purity and cultural unity. For them, ‘hybridisation’ is really ‘mongrelisation’. Attempting to restore past ‘greatness’ or fend off ‘pollution’, they agitate for walls to keep dangerous others out, fearing that every newcomer is inherently a threatening intruder.

现在，世界上只有民粹主义的右翼人士对外来的“他者”（外在或内在）抱有敌意。他们曾经是养尊处优并处于 支配地位 的一群人，但如今那些充满愤怒和怨恨、高调宣扬 “异化”论。在他们记忆中或是声称的记忆中，社会是同质的、一体的和安定的，而如今他们的地位日益下降，让他们感受到了威胁。为了抵御外来势力的侵袭，宗教、种族、国家和性别的认同变得更加严格。很多人选择拥抱而不是驱逐“外来者”，这让他们感到十分恐慌，他们群情激昂，表达自己对外来者的反抗，比如说跨性别者。他们对于没有本地身份“外来者”更为敏感，不论这些“外来者”是否是通过合法途径来到这里的，都对他们所谓的种族纯化（ethnic purity）和文化一致（cultural unity）造成了威胁。对他们来说，这种“混合状态”（hybridisation）实际上是“种族混杂”（mongrelisation）。为了恢复过去的“伟大”或抵御“污染”，他们 一心想要 筑起能将危险的他者拒之门外的高墙。他们担心，每个新来者都是潜在充满威胁的入侵者。

Migrate [maɪ'greɪt] v. to move from one place to another 移动，转移

Hegemonic [ˌhedʒɪˈmɒnɪk] adj. being the strongest and most powerful and therefore able to control others 控制的

Agitate ['ædʒ.ɪ.teɪt] v. to argue forcefully, especially in public, in order to achieve a particular type of change （尤指公开）煽动，鼓动，大声疾呼

In short, alienation in the second decade of the 21st century has not actually faded away as a descriptor of human distress. Rather, it has become most visible in the anxiety of those who bemoan the transformation of a beloved homeland into an unrecognisable nation of aliens.

简而言之，在21世纪第二个十年里，“异化”作为描述人类痛苦状态的一种方式并没有真正消失。有些人哀叹自己深爱的祖国被外来者糟蹋得面目全非，在这种焦虑下，异化论则更引人注目了。

取经号推荐

文章

• 劳动异化论与人性异化论——马克思与弗洛姆异化理论之比较

  本文通过比较分析弗洛姆“人性异化论”与马克思“劳动异化论”的主要观点及其形成的时代背景，揭示二者在关于异化的本质、异化的根源以及如何消除等方面的本质区别及相互关系，以便于深入了解资本主义社会的内在规律、本质以及资本主义条件下人的生存状况。

  http://www.cssn.cn/zt/zt_xkzt/12746/mksdshlxyshzyll/rdyhyyq/201610/t20161020_3243645.shtml

• 浅析个人与社会权界——齐美尔文化悲剧困惑的思考

  http://www.doc88.com/p-7038647148363.html

  
  

问题

• 如何解释马克思的「劳动的异化」?

  https://www.zhihu.com/question/34618386

• 哲学和社会学专业人士如何看待“异化”和“物化”这两个概念？

  https://www.zhihu.com/question/27344978

• 如何理解索绪尔理论中「所指和能指的关系是任意的」？

  https://www.zhihu.com/question/20246144

书籍

• 康德《道德形而上学基础》

  “人是目的，不是手段”

  豆瓣：8.7

  https://book.douban.com/subject/2098305/

  
  

• 《单向度的人》

  发达工业社会是如何成功地压制了人们内心中的否定性、批判性、超越性的向度，使这个社会成为单向度的社会，而生活于其中的人成了单向度的人，这种人丧失了自由和创造力，不再想像或追求与现实生活不同的另一种生活。

  豆瓣：8.4

  https://book.douban.com/subject/1787729/

  
  

• 《局外人》

  加缪在他的小说、戏剧、随笔和论著中深刻地揭示出人在异己的世界中的孤独、个人与自身的日益异化，以及罪恶和死亡的不可避免，但他在揭示出世界的荒诞的同时却并不绝望和颓丧，他主张要在荒诞中奋起反抗，在绝望中坚持真理和正义

  豆瓣：9.0

  https://book.douban.com/subject/4908885/

  
  

• 《未来是湿的》

  和工业组织与社会的科层体制中人们相互之间那种“干巴巴”的关系相比较，他们在网上的关系是“湿乎乎”的，是基于情感、缘分、兴趣等等在网上聚集起来的。如果说工业社会对传统社会的人际关系来说是“祛魅”的话，那么网络交往就是“复魅”。

  豆瓣：7.5

  https://book.douban.com/subject/3735295/

  
  

• 《麦田里的守望者》

  不仅仅是因为此书写出了美国二十世纪五十年代“垮掉的一代”内心深处的苦闷和彷徨，更重要的是它直指现代文明社会对人性的异化和扭曲，这才是青少年内心孤独苦闷的根源。“异化”主题主要表现在人与社会关系的异化、人与人关系的异化、人与自然关系的异化几个方面。主人公霍尔顿是现代文明社会的受害者，也是对现存制度的反叛者，他的经历写出了现代人的孤独、压抑、困惑，这也是《麦田里的守望者》深刻的社会意义。

  豆瓣：8.1

  https://book.douban.com/subject/2053249/

• 《变形记》

  自居为万灵之长的人类，在自己亲手创造的异化力量之下，一夜之间蜕化为一只丑陋的甲虫，最后在家人的嫌弃，厌恶中，在绝对的孤独当中，萎缩死亡。卡夫卡的作品是荒诞离奇的，但绝不是无聊的故弄玄虚，它们都牢牢地扎根于现实生活，它们的魅力正是来自对“人”的深切关注。这些大大小小的作品迷宫似的构成了一个相当完整的异化世界，从个人生活到社会生活，各个环节都出了毛病，阴差阳错。

  豆瓣：8.7

  https://book.douban.com/subject/1873900/