[1] 详见《AI经济学》之“第十二章 AI风投从领先到落后的创新金融启示”,中金研究院2024年7月。
[2] 根据美国证券交易法规定,公司在两种情况下需注册成为公众公司(Public Company):①公开发行证券或公开交易已发行的证券,例如IPO后的公司均属于公众公司;②公司资产规模超过1000万美元且其有超过2000名的证券持有人或超过500名的非合格投资者(主要是收入或净资产低于一定规模的个人投资者)。一旦满足上述两种情形中任意一种,公司便需要向SEC注册为公众公司,并履行定期对外披露年报、季报等财报信息以及日常经营过程中重大事项的义务。
[3] 详见《中庸策2022·双支柱举国体制》之“第六章 创新金融:并非资本市场独角戏”,中金研究院2022年12月。
[4] 威廉·戈兹曼、哥特·罗文霍斯特:《价值起源》,万卷出版公司,2010年。
[5] 严格来讲,交易所不包含场外交易场所,但鉴于本文的研究主题以及行文简便考虑,本文不再刻意区分交易所和交易场所两个措辞。
[6] 详见《中庸策2023·双支柱金融体系与好的社会》之“第六章 新制度经济学视角的中小银行治理分析”,中金研究院2023年12月。
[7] 张少华. 亚历山大· 汉密尔顿的财政金融改革[J]. 美国研究, 1994 (3): 108-128
[8] 即在固定地点进行证券交易,这有助于降低投资者之间搜寻交易对手的成本,便于证券交易的达成
[9] 详见纽交所官网:https://www.nyse.com/history-of-nyse
[10] 马克思,《资本论》第一卷第二十三章之“资本主义积累的一般规律”,人民出版社,2018年。
[11] https://globalfinancialdata.com/regional-stock-markets-in-the-united-states
[12] https://globalfinancialdata.com/regional-stock-markets-in-the-united-states
[13] Arnold T, Hersch P, Mulherin J H, et al. Merging markets[J]. The Journal of finance, 1999, 54(3): 1083-1107.
[14] 详见《中庸策2023·双支柱金融体系与好的社会》之“第六章 新制度经济学视角的中小银行治理分析”,中金研究院2023年12月。
[15] Arnold T, Hersch P, Mulherin J H, et al. Merging markets[J]. The Journal of finance, 1999, 54(3): 1083-1107.
[16] White E N. Competition among the exchanges before the SEC: was the NYSE a natural hegemon?[J]. Financial History Review, 2013, 20(1): 29-48.
[17] Arnold T, Hersch P, Mulherin J H, et al. Merging markets[J]. The Journal of finance, 1999, 54(3): 1083-1107.
[18] https://globalfinancialdata.com/regional-stock-markets-in-the-united-states
[19] 高盛、摩根士丹利等知名券商在美国SEC的注册类型是经纪自营商(broker-dealer)。为更符合我国表达习惯,本文将美国经纪自营商统称为券商。
[20] O'sullivan M. The expansion of the US stock market, 1885–1930: historical facts and theoretical fashions[J]. Enterprise & Society, 2007, 8(3): 489-542.
[21] Neal L, Davis L E. Why did finance capitalism and the second industrial revolution arise in the 1890s?[J]. 2007.
[22] O'sullivan M. The expansion of the US stock market, 1885–1930: historical facts and theoretical fashions[J]. Enterprise & Society, 2007, 8(3): 489-542.
[23] O'Sullivan M A. Funding new industries: a historical perspective on the financing role of the US stock market in the twentieth century[J]. 2007.
[24] O'Sullivan M A. Funding new industries: a historical perspective on the financing role of the US stock market in the twentieth century[J]. 2007.
[25] O'sullivan M. The expansion of the US stock market, 1885–1930:historical facts and theoretical fashions [J]. Enterprise & Society, 2007, 8(3): 489-542.
[26] Neal L, Davis L E. Why did finance capitalism and the second industrial revolution arise in the 1890s? [J]. 2007
[27] Lamoreaux N R, Levenstein M, Sokoloff K L. Financing invention during the second industrial revolution: Cleveland, Ohio, 1870–1920[J]. 2007.
[28] 详见《中庸策2022·双支柱举国体制》之“第六章 创新金融:并非资本市场独角戏”,中金研究院2022年12月。
[29] 详见《中庸策2022·双支柱举国体制》之“第三章 产业链纵横与双支柱举国体制”,中金研究院2022年12月。
[30] Binz O, Graham J R. The information content of corporate earnings: Evidence from the Securities Exchange Act of 1934[J]. Journal of Accounting Research, 2022, 60(4): 1379-1418.
[31] NASDAQ, The regulatory threat to Nasdaq: a lexecon report, 1995
[32] Harrington B. Scenes from a Power Struggle: The Rise of Retail Investors in the US Stock Market[M]//Rethinking Power in Organizations, Institutions, and Markets. Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2012, 34: 233-260;https://www.sechistorical.org/museum/galleries/msr/msr02b_institutional_investors.php
[33] https://www.gothamcenter.org/blog/the-new-york-curb-market-which-has-no-organization-whatever-the-enclosure-of-new-yorks-last-outdoor-stock-market-1900-1921.
[34] https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/COMPS-1885/pdf/COMPS-1885.pdf
[35] 1963年,SEC发布《证券市场研究报告》指出,信息不透明是当时美国场外市场的突出问题,这使得美国场外市场存在较多欺诈性事件。因而SEC要求NASD(National Association of Securities Dealers,美国场外市场自律组织)组建场外市场交易平台以解决场外市场信息不透明问题,纳斯达克应运而生。纳斯达克成立初期仅为场外市场约2500支成交活跃证券提供电子报价及交易服务,当其在1975年推出了自己的上市标准后,其开始具备上市融资功能。
[36] NASDAQ, The regulatory threat to Nasdaq: a lexecon report, 1995。https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/1990/1995_0101_NasdaqLexecon.pdf
[37] O'sullivan M. The expansion of the US stock market, 1885–1930: historical facts and theoretical fashions[J]. Enterprise & Society, 2007, 8(3): 489-542.
[38] https://www.mcall.com/1992/05/24/nasdaq-has-eye-on-next-100-years/
[39] Bui D Y, Chance D, Stephens C. Does the Choice Between Listing on the NYSE Versus Nasdaq Matter? An Examination of Firms that Voluntarily Move from the NYSE to Nasdaq[J]. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 2019, 19(7).
[40] https://www.mcall.com/news/mc-xpm-1992-05-24-2855271-story.html
[41] https://www.mcall.com/news/mc-xpm-1992-05-24-2855271-story.html
[42] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/oral-histories/20091029_Hardiman_JosephT.pdf
[43] Ingebretsen M. NASDAQ: A History of the Market that Changed the World[J], 2002.
[44] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/1990/1995_0101_NasdaqLexecon.pdf
[45] https://www.mcall.com/news/mc-xpm-1992-05-24-2855271-story.html
[46] Bui D Y, Chance D, Stephens C. Does the Choice Between Listing on the NYSE Versus Nasdaq Matter? An Examination of Firms that Voluntarily Move from the NYSE to Nasdaq[J]. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 2019, 19(7).
[47] https://www.edn.com/nyse-vs-nasdaq/
[48] https://www.tradersmagazine.com/news/the-showman-who-heads-new-york-stock-exchangethe-story-behind-richard-grassos-sharp-edge-and-sa/
[49] Tyranski G W. NYSE listed company financial requirements: Development, implementation and enforcement[J]. International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, 2008, 5: 97-103.
[50] Tyranski G W. NYSE listed company financial requirements: Development, implementation and enforcement[J]. International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, 2008, 5: 97-103.
[51] Tyranski G W. NYSE listed company financial requirements: Development, implementation and enforcement[J]. International Journal of Disclosure and Governance, 2008, 5: 97-103.
[52] https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/FR-1997-04-09/pdf/97-9004.pdf,以及Klein, A., & Mohanram, P. S. (2005). Why did so many poor-performing firms come to market in the late 1990s?: Nasdaq listing standards and the bubble. NASDAQ Listing Standards and the Bubble (April 2005).
[53] Klein, A., & Mohanram, P. S. (2005). Why did so many poor-performing firms come to market in the late 1990s?: Nasdaq listing standards and the bubble. NASDAQ Listing Standards and the Bubble (April 2005).
[54] 公司制改革对应的英文为Demutualization,也可翻译为非互助化改革、股份化改革,其是指交易所从会员所有的组织转变为股东所有的公司。
[55] Zulfigar S T. Demutualization of stock exchanges and stock market Growth: broader economic investigation of demutualized Exchanges[J]. Journal of Economics Finance and Accounting, 2014, 1(4).
[56] Fleckner A M. Stock exchanges at the crossroads[J]. Fordham L. Rev., 2005, 74: 2541.
[57] Public ownership of U.S. stock markets : hearing before the Committee on Banking, Housing, and Urban Affairs, United States Senate, 1999
[58] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/2000/2001_0101_NASDAR.pdf。注:不同于当时大多数会员制交易所采用的非营利组织形式,纳斯达克在公司制改革之前就已经以NASD全资子公司的形式存在并运营,但由于NASD属于由券商构成的会员自律组织,NASD及纳斯达克重大事项由会员券商投票决定,因而尽管此时纳斯达克以公司形式运营,但其在决策等方面与会员制交易所更为类似。
[59] https://ir.nasdaq.com/node/6686/html
[60] 对于已在其他交易所上市的公司,如果要转板至纽交所上市,则“市值标准”中的市值根据该公司的过往市值确定。如果是未在其他交易所上市的公司,则“市值标准”中的市值是预计市值的概念。
[61] https://www.sec.gov/files/rules/sro/nyse/2014/34-73265.pdf
[62] It is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest,引自亚当·斯密《国富论》。
[63] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/1990/1996_0808_SECNASD_1.pdf;https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/34-51524.pdf
[64] NASDAQ, The Regulatory Threat to NASDAQ, 1995.
[65] Warren Rudman, Executive Summary of The Report of The NASD Select Committee on Structure and Governance to The NASD Board of Governors, 1995.
[66] SEC, Report Pursuant to Section 21(A) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934:Regarding the Nasd and the Nasdaq Market,1996.
[67] 竞争性做市商制度是指每支股票都有至少两家做市商进行双边报价,通过做市商之间的竞争性报价来为投资者提供更优的买入及卖出价格。
[68] 详见美国司法部关于纳斯达克做市商“友好竞争”的司法判决:https://www.justice.gov/atr/case-document/file/484141/dl
[69] SEC Special Study: Electronic Communication Networks and After-Hours Trading, 2000.
[70] https://www.sechistorical.org/museum/galleries/sro/sro06c.php
[71] 详见SEC关于纽交所专家的调查报告:https://www.sec.gov/litigation/admin/34-51524.pdf
[72] https://www.justice.gov/atr/case-document/competitive-impact-statement-9
[73] https://www.sec.gov/files/litigation/admin/34-51524.pdf
[74] https://www.sechistorical.org/museum/galleries/sro/sro02b.php
[75] Mulherin J H, Brown W O, Weidenmier M. Competing with the NYSE[J]. NBER Working Paper, 2006.
[76] 当时纽交所1060名会员中约有400名会员同时在Consolidated Stock Exchange开展业务,在少数服从多数的投票机制下,纽交所最终通过了对“会员禁止参与Consolidated Stock Exchange交易”的限制性规定。O'sullivan M. The expansion of the US stock market, 1885–1930: historical facts and theoretical fashions[J]. Enterprise & Society, 2007, 8(3): 489-542.
[77] 详见《中庸策2023·双支柱金融体系与好的社会》之“第一章 ‘正确曲线’与好的社会”,中金研究院2022年。
[78] 拉古拉迈•拉詹等:《从资本家手中拯救资本主义》,中信出版社,2015年12月。
[79] https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/17/240.19c-1
[80] https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/17/240.19c-3
[81] https://www.sec.gov/news/testimony/testarchive/1999/tsty2599.txt
[82] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/1970/1971_0310_SECInstitutionalInvestor_01.pdf
[83] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/1970/1971_0806_MartinReport.pdf
[84] https://www.sechistorical.org/collection/papers/1970/1972_0517_CaseySparkmanPolicyStatement.pdf
[85] 其余四个目标分别是:经济高效地执行证券交易;投资者、经纪商、交易商等不同参与主体能够公平获得证券报价及交易信息;经纪商能够在最优报价的市场为投资者执行交易;证券买卖订单可以在投资者之间高效达成。https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/15/78k-1
[86] https://www.sec.gov/divisions/marketreg/market2000.pdf
[87] Werner W. Adventure in Social Control of Finance: The National Market System for Securities[J]. Colum. L. Rev., 1975, 75: 1233.
[88] Division of Market Regulation, SEC, Market 2000:An Examination of Current Equity Market Developments, 1994.
[89] Division of Market Regulation, SEC, Market 2000:An Examination of Current Equity Market Developments, 1994.
[90] https://www.sec.gov/comments/sr-nasdaq-2007-031/nasdaq2007031-14.pdf
[91] https://www.sec.gov/files/rules/sro/nms/2008/34-58904.pdf
[92] Bui D Y, Chance D, Stephens C. Does the Choice Between Listing on the NYSE Versus Nasdaq Matter? An Examination of Firms that Voluntarily Move from the NYSE to Nasdaq[J]. Journal of Accounting and Finance, 2019, 19(7).
[93] McInish T H, Wood R A. Competition, fragmentation, and market quality[M]//The Industrial Organization and Regulation of the Securities Industry. University of Chicago Press, 1996: 63-92.
[94] O’Hara M. Searching for a new center: US securities markets in transition[J]. Economic Review, 2004, 89(Q 4): 37-52.
[95] Petrella G. MiFID, Reg NMS and competition across trading venues in Europe and the USA[J]. Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance, 2010, 18(3): 257-271.
[96] Chen D, Duffie D. Market fragmentation[J]. American Economic Review, 2021, 111(7): 2247-2274.
[97] 当前纳斯达克集团(NASDAQ Inc)下设多家子公司,分别运营不同的市场或聚焦于不同的业务,其中纳斯达克股票市场公司(NASDAQ Stock Market LLC)是专职负责运营纳斯达克市场的子公司。
[98] https://ir.nasdaq.com/corporate-governance/nasdaq-stock-market/board-of-directors
[99] https://ir.nasdaq.com/static-files/2386e5d7-a3ee-45b2-9257-0e267a19a8ff
[100] https://ir.nasdaq.com/static-files/9fc95993-fdb7-4237-8b56-04c7f4932d6e
[101] https://ir.nasdaq.com/static-files/f909702a-a50f-4ed8-ad6c-394cf806d98e
[102] SEC,Market 2000:An Examination of Current Equity Market Developments, 1994
[103] Sjostrom Jr W K. The birth of rule 144A equity offerings[J]. UCLA L. Rev., 2008, 56: 409.
[104] 详见《AI经济学》之“第十二章 AI风投从领先到落后的创新金融启示”,中金研究院2024年7月。
[105] 详见《中庸策·双支柱金融体系与好的社会》之“第二章 新中间路线:双支柱金融体系”,中金研究院,2023年12月。