英文目次丨《开放时代》2025年第2期

OPEN TIMES

2nd ISSUE, 2025

CONTENTS

Chinese Experiences in Realization of Value of Ecological Products: Practical Deconstruction and Theoretical Interpretation Based on Typical Cases Issued by State Ministries

Lu Hao, Li Haitao & Wen Tiejun

Abstract : The realization of ecological product value is crucial for practicing the “Two Mountains” idea and promoting the modernization characterized by harmonious coexistence between humans and nature. It also provides a good case in point for the agenda of “crystalizing Chinese experiences into Chinese theories.” In recent years, the Ministry of Natural Resources of PRC, the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of PRC, and the National Development and Reform Commission have selected and released innovative practice cases of ecological product value realization in batches. These cases collectively reflect Chinese wisdom and experience, yet their theoretical value has not been fully explored and adequately explained in academic terms. Typical cases cover value-added pathways in three aspects: ecological spatial resources, ecological public goods, and ecological consumer goods. They embody three practical strategies: spillover sharing, quota trading, and empowerment-driven value addition. Through the value materialization pathways of ecological deficit restoration, ecological value deepening, and ecological capital appreciation, a systematic top-level design guides the development of the green economy. Tailored approaches are adopted to extend ecological products from ecological public goods to ecological spatial resources and ecological consumer goods. This not only achieves a win-win situation for ecological value and economic benefits, but also contributes Chinese wisdom to global ecological civilization.

Keywords : the idea of “Two Mountains”, ecological spatial resources, ecological civilization, new quality productivity, new development philosophy

Constructing Pro-active Academic Autonomy: On the Relationship between Academic Autonomy and Knowledge System Autonomy

Xia Qianfang

Abstract : As the basic condition of knowledge pursuit in the social sciences, academic autonomy is also a necessary but not sufficient prerequisite for an independent knowledge system. However, in the Chinese academic field in the era of globalization, what is academic autonomy and what it aims for remain largely unresolved. An understanding of this issue profoundly influences the way of knowledge pursuit of Chinese scholars and the character of their academic fruits, and further affects the ideological atmosphere of Chinese society and the discourse power of the state. Based on the previous critique of the negative aspects of academic autonomy, this paper discusses a positive attitude towards academic autonomy which means a more proactive and dynamic academic practice, with knowledge innovation as the main goal. First, it emphasizes a clear sense of academic responsibility, which is not equivalent to the scholar’s own academic interest, but rather is associated with the collective role awareness mandated by social science as a public profession containing particular academic concerns and an intellectual standpoint. Secondly, it points to an academic practice of “reflective construction”, that is, knowledge innovation aimed at guiding, shaping and promoting Chinese-style modernization. It is based on a critical examination of the prevailing “universal” knowledge system of the west and an ambitious aspiration for a new type of universality. This new type of universality can only be achieved through political pursuit of the universal rules of knowledge.

Keywords : positive academic autonomy, academic concern, politics of knowledge, constructiveness, universality

“Punishment Originating from Warfare”: Reflections on the Hundred-year Old Myth

Lai Junnan

Abstract : The theory of “punishment originating from warfare,” one of the prevailing views in legal historiography, posits that ancient Chinese law originated from wars among early kinship groups. This theory is fundamentally distinct from the ancient concept of “the unity of warfare and punishment.” The “punishment originating from warfare” theory emerged in the modern context of the prevalence of Social Darwinism and racial ideologies, and it is premised on the western origin of Chinese nation and its accompanying narrative of ancient racial warfare. Contemporary iterations of the “punishment originating from warfare” theory largely retain the core of its earlier modern version but have downplayed the narrative background of racial warfare. The theory is critiqued for its pseudoscientific theoretical premises, inappropriate use of core historical materials, insufficient attention to ancient texts and scholarship, formalistic approaches to comparative legal history, inconsistent focus in Sino-Western comparisons, and an overly critical stance towards ancient values. The “punishment originating from warfare” theory is seen as a byproduct of modern scholars’ reactive response to the Eurocentric racial historical views they encountered. Future research on the origins of Chinese law has ample reason to move beyond the “punishment originating from warfare” theory and, with a more confident approach, contribute Chinese insights to the global academic community.

Keywords : “punishment originating from warfare”, western origin, origin of Chinese law

Rethinking Ethnography with the “ Fengtu ” Records

Zhang Fan

Abstract : Following critiques of power and the crisis of representation, anthropology has entered a new phase of reflection on ethnography, emphasizing the processes of translation and dialogue across different worlds, thus challenging the epistemological binaries between human and non-human, culture and nature, and expanding the connotation of the concept of society. In order to advance this reflection, this article revisits the Chinese concept of fengtu (wind and earth) and the Chinese tradition of fengtu records for a reconstruction of ethnographic practices. The article argues that the fengtu records, focusing on the interaction between “wind” (human and cultural aspects) and “earth” (natural and material aspects), offers a holistic approach to understanding the life-world. By integrating relational and ecological perspectives, it challenges dichotomies such as nature against culture and subject against object, presenting fengtu records as an alternative framework for a more inclusive and relational ethnography that accommodates various categories and bridges the visible and the invisible, self and the other, and mind and body.

Keywords : ethnography, fengtu records, fengtu , anthropocentrism

Expropriation, Transportation and Distribution - A Study on the Food Supply of the Fourth Red Army (1927-1930)

Ma Xuejun

Abstract : As the saying goes,“Food and fodder should go ahead of troops and horses.” Food supply was related to the daily necessities of the Red Army and the survival of the revolutionary base. The Fourth Red Army led by Mao Zedong and Zhu De had always faced difficulties in food provisioning from the time they occupied Jinggang Mountain to the period of their maneuvering in Southern Jiangxi and Western Fujian. Through a series of measures such as abolishing military pay, implementing equality between commanders and rank and file, confiscating the landlords of their food and money, carrying out land revolution, recruiting civilian porters, and establishing a centralized feeding and coordinating organization, the Fourth Red Army not only solved the difficulties in collecting, transporting and distributing food to a large extent, but also reshaped the relationship between officers, soldiers, and civilians. However, the food supply of the Fourth Red Army also still faced the intense pressure of military operations, the limit of the burden of the resources of the revolutionary base areas, and the contradictory relationship between decentralization and centralized coordination, which were the triple difficulties that the Fourth Red Army's food supply needed to face and overcome thereafter.

Keywords: the Fourth Red Army, food supply, confiscate the landlords, civilian porters, centralized coordination

“Wound Dressing”: The Intersection of Technology and Humanism in War Injury Treatment by CPC Forces in the North China Liberation Area

Mu Junyi

Abstract : War injury treatment is a medical practice that heavily relies on surgical technology, with “wound dressing” playing a crucial role. During the Land Revolution period and the full-scale Anti-Japanese War, the CPC military primarily employed the technical principle of “frequent dressing is better” to treat wounded soldiers. Although frequent dressing caused significant pain to the wounded, the care and companionship provided by medical personnel during treatment fostered a harmonious doctor-patient relationship. In the Liberation War period, the transformation of warfare necessitated technological innovations in war injury treatment to enhance treatment efficiency. Building on comprehensive absorption of war surgery experiences from countries such as the Soviet Union, the CPC health department introduced the new trauma therapy, advocating for a reduced frequency of wound dressing, i.e., “less dressing is better.” Unexpectedly, both medical personnel and wounded soldiers exhibited strong resistance to this new approach, posing significant obstacles to the promotion of the new trauma therapy. Through strenuous effort of explanation and a balanced emphasis on efficacy and humanism, the new wound dressing practice was successfully disseminated, thereby improving the efficiency of war injury treatment. The change from “frequent” to “less frequent” wound dressing and the corresponding shift in perceptions between medical staff and patients reveal the CPC military’s adaptation to a more scientific and efficient framework.

Keywords : North China liberation area, the Communist Party of China (CPC) military, war injury treatment, wound dressing, new trauma therapy

Two Theoretical Perspectives in Oral History: Memory and Narration, as well as on Tension between Specialization and Non-specialization in Oral History

Liu Yaqiu

Abstract : As the oral history method is widely used across disciplines and fields, the issue of its specialization has become crucial for its further development. The specialization of oral history not only involves practical issues such as how to conduct oral history, but also deeper theoretical and methodological questions about how to view oral historical materials. The latter determines the quality of the recorded materials. Adopting memory and narrative as theoretical perspectives helps to delve into the latter issue. From the tension between the collective memory paradigm and the cultural memory paradigm in memory theory, significant differences between oral memory and written memory can be observed, providing a necessary theoretical foundation for reflecting on the limitations of oral historical materials. From the tension between form and content in narrative theory, it can be seen that form provides a specialized perspective for the interpretation of oral historical materials, while the power of content should not be overlooked. Emphasizing the theoretical perspectives of memory and narrative can not only deepen the specialization of oral history research, but also help advance qualitative research in a broader sense.

Keywords : oral history, specialization, narrative analysis, memory theory

State, Class, and World Revolution: the Debate of nationalism in the 1920s

Liu Qi

Abstract : In the process of modern nation-building, the nature and positioning of the state have always been the core issue. This article summarizes the debate of nationalism in the 1920s in China, in order to explain how we stepped into our unique road of nation-building. We start by introducing the arguments of the nationalists, then focus our attention on the refutations put forth by the emerging Communists, in combination with the views of Sun Yat-sen and the anarchists, to clarify the essential points in the debate. We try to point out that the emergence of nationalism in China was an inevitability. The Communists were keenly aware of the profound crisis in the state as the goal, and cast criticism from the standpoint of class and cosmopolitanism. This debate, arguably the starting point of the nation-building process in China, has laid the foundation of Chinese style modernization with special reference to the relationships between state and nation, state and class, state and the world, as well as other core issues.

Keywords : nationalism, the Awaken Lion School, communism, class, cosmopolitanism

From “European War” to “World War”: Evolving Chinese Response to World War I and the Consequences

Yu Lu

Abstract : The conflict known today as World War I was initially referred to by the Chinese as the “European War.” The shift in terminology to “World War” was not rooted in the scale of the war, but rather in China’s relationship with it. At the onset of the war, the Chinese people recognized its global magnitude but continued to label it as the “European War,” maintaining a largely observational stance. The term “World War” began to be used when Japan entered the war and became more established after China severed diplomatic ties with Germany, reflecting China’s active engagement and influence in the war, and its synchronization with global developments. Towards the end of the war and beyond, the designation “World War” gained even greater significance, symbolizing China’s role as a member of the “world,” directly engaging with global affairs, actively seeking its rightful international status, striving to prevent and resist Japan’s ambitions to dominate East Asia, and upholding “justice” against the strong powers. Despite setbacks, China persisted in this value orientation, predicting and warning that an unjust post-war international order would lead to the outbreak of World War II in East Asia. The profound impact of World War I on China lies not in the war itself, but in the international political landscape it created and the consequent changes in China’s relationship with the world.

Keywords : European War, world war, World War I, the world

Credible Commitments in Non-constitutional Democratic States: Issue and Debate

Xie Zhenda

Abstract: New institutional economists attempts to understand institutions from the perspective of credibility. They assume that constitutional order benefits states to make extensive credible commitments, and to achieve the consolidation of order and economic development. However, much of this literature assumes that only liberal democracy and multi-party elections constitute a legitimate and effective system, often referred to as liberal democracy or constitutional democracy. In contrast, literature from comparative politics suggests that even under non-constitutional democratic orders, states possess institutional pathways capable of mitigating the problem of credible commitment. These issues and debates constitute the main theoretical puzzles addressed in this article. We explore how credible commitments are possible in non-constitutional democratic states from the perspectives of power-sharing and property rights protection. We argue that new institutional economics, with its theoretical blueprint based on Western constitutional experiences and a dichotomous deductive logic of political systems, obscuring the original meaning of credible commitment. Credible commitment emphasizes the level of political institution building and cannot deduce macro value judgments and political-economic outcomes. Credible commitment should be regarded as an analytical tool and a governance issue, without the ideological presuppositions behind it.

Keywords : new institutional economics, credible commitment, power sharing, property rights protection, constitutional order

How Parties Shape Social Identity: V. I. Lenin’s Theory of Ideological Indoctrination

Xu Shuming

Abstract : How is a modern party distinct from other types of political and social organizations? This article argues that a modern party (usually a mass party) is an organization seeking to articulate a broad constituency. Here, articulation refers to the process by which party practices naturalize class, ethnic, and racial formations as the basis of social division, integrating disparate interests and identities into coherent sociopolitical blocs. Yet a key question remains: How did political articulation become the defining feature of a modern mass party? By analyzing V. I. Lenin’s theory of ideological indoctrination, this article contends that early twentieth-century revolutionaries attempted to shape class consciousness through the party. They thus established both the theoretical framework and practical foundations that would define a modern mass party. Lenin’s theory of indoctrination began with the question of how to launch a social revolution in Russia, a country lagging behind Western Europe. This theory consists of two main components. First, the agent of indoctrination is a party composed of professional revolutionaries. Second, Lenin distinguished two pathways for ideological indoctrination—propaganda and agitation—and identified print media as the primary infrastructure for these processes. Furthermore, Lenin developed his theory by considering four key factors: (1) the situation of the Russian intelligentsia, (2) the intellectual legacy of Russian populism, (3) the revolutionary objective of seizing state power, and (4) the exile of many of Russia’s socialist thinkers.

Keywords : party and society, ideological indoctrination, social revolution, V. I. Lenin

Villagers’ self-governance in China: Historical Essence and Modern Renewal

Chen Ming

Abstract : Understanding and implementing the community-level self-governance system correctly, and promoting the modern transformation of villagers’ self-governance, are important aspects of the modernization of rural governance. Theoretically, democratic self-governance within small communities is desirable only when most public affairs can rely on the market or government regulation, and the local public sphere is significantly reduced. Both the local self-governance of traditional society and the villagers’ self-governance after the reform and opening-up are operational methods for the state to reduce the cost of rural governance through local intermediaries, rather than mature and standardized forms of self-governance. Since the new era, the level of rural modernization and the capacity of state governance have been unprecedentedly elevated, leading to a transformation of farmers’ forms, social relationships, and the public domain. This has created the necessary social-historical conditions for constructing modern villagers’ self-governance. The future of Chinese villagers’ self-governance does not lie in strengthening its political attributes along the path of democratic elections, but in promoting the organic connection between its institutional structure and the evolving context of the era, and opening up space for the development of democratic self-governance in the daily life of villages. In summary, the future and direction of Chinese villagers’ self-governance lie in returning to the essence of democratic self-governance in daily life and opening new possibilities for the modernization of rural governance.

Keywords : state capacity, grassroots governance, rural governance, villagers’ self-governance

Digital Refugee Research: Concepts, Agendas and Implications for China

Zhu Zhengde & Hu Yong

Abstract : Since the precariousness of human society has been exacerbated by digital technology, the boundaries between refugees and citizens have become increasingly blurred, spawning digital refugees on an expanding scale. Consequently, digital refugee research originating from futurology and S&TS emerged. The futurologist approach was abandoned by the international academia due to its gradual exposure of the intention to incite moral panic, but it hasn’t lost its popularity in China; The S&TS approach has recently become an international academic hotspot, gaining support from humanitarian organizations such as the UNHCR, and affecting humanitarian communication in global disaster-relief practices, but it lacks resonance in China. Bounded by futurology, Chinese digital refugee research has narrowly defined its concepts, adhered to semi-critical thinking when scrutinizing digital literacy and digital inclusiveness, and fallen into a confirmatory bias, resulting in a monotonous agenda involuting between age and technology variables. By contrast, international digital refugee research focuses on complex processes of stimulating social vulnerability, i.e. the loss of conditions for guaranteeing basic civil rights by specific individuals or groups. It reveals that the concept of “digital refugees” has dual connotations of “digitalization of refugees” and “refugees of digitalization”, thus expanding pertinent agendas to a broader horizon and summarizing mechanisms of digital refugees’ generation and conversion. This paper suggests that the Chinese academia can draw upon the S&TS definition of digital refugees and return to disaster events in China, in order to rid the futurology horizon and construct an alternative theoretical framework.

Keywords : digital refugees, digital technology, disasters, humanitarian communication