【1】Federal Trade Commission, 16 Code of Federal Regulations (C.F.R.) Part 910, Non-Compete Clause Rule (April 23, 2024), 89 Federal Register (Fed. Reg.) 38342 (May 7, 2024).
【2】贸委会一共收到了将近27,000个反馈意见,由于各界的反应异常热烈,中间还曾把截止期限延长一个月。参见FTC, Notice of proposed rulemaking; extension of public comment period, 88 Fed. Reg. 20441 (April 6, 2023)。
【3】Executive Order 14036 of July 9, 2021, Promoting Competition in the American Economy, 86 Fed. Reg. 36987 (July 14, 2021).
【4】16 C.F.R. § 910.1 (Definitions): “Non-compete clause means: (1) a term or condition of employment that prohibits a worker from, penalizes a worker for, or functions to prevent a worker from (i) seeking or accepting work in the United States with a different person where such work would begin after the conclusion of the employment that includes the term or condition; or (ii) operating a business in the United States after the conclusion of the employment that includes….” See supra note 1, at 38502.
【5】贸委会同时采用了高阶收入与职务责任测试法则,认为只有名实相符的高管较能真正依自愿协商的方式以签订竞业协议作为交换其薪资所得及承担责任,而非出于非自愿甚至半胁迫的方式。据贸委会的评估,目前约有0.75%的就业人口达到了或高于此一门槛要求。至于这个薪资收入金额是以美国联邦劳工统计局(U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics,简称BLS)对2023年全年的调研统计,取年度平均值的第85%水平而得。参见BLS, Labor Force Statistics from the Current Population Survey, available at https://www.bls.gov/cps/research/nonhourly/earnings-nonhourly-workers.htm。
【6】在一个联邦行政机构出台了行政规则的最终版本后,一般自《联邦公报》公布日的次日起算不超过30日生效。但如被归类为“显著规则”(significant rules,依据第12866号总统行政命令的定义,参见Executive Oder 12866 of September 30, 1993, Regulatory Planning and Review, 58 Fed. Reg. 51735 (October 4, 1993))或“重大规则”(依据《小型企业规制公正执行法》(Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act, § 251, as Title II, Subtitle E of Contract with America Advancement Act of 1996, Pub. L. 104-121, 110 Stat. 847, 868 (1996), codified at 5 U.S.C. §§ 801-808,也称为《国会审议法》(Congressional Review Act)的定义)时,其生效日必须延后至少60日,等待该办公室的审核通过,另还需向国会报备。如国会不同意,可以两院的“共同决议”(joint resolution)方式予以否决。参见5 U.S.C. § 802(a)。依据上述规定,“重大规则”是指具备下列的三种情形之一:(1)会对经济的年度影响达到或超过1亿美元;(2)会对消费者、个别产业、各级政府机构或特定地理区域的成本或物价会造成大幅上升;或是(3)会对竞争、劳动、投资、生产力、创新或国际竞争力产生显著负面影响。参见5 U.S.C. § 804(2)。
【7】The White House, Non-Compete Agreements: Analysis of the Usage, Potential Issues and State Responses (May 2016), at 4, available at https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/non-competes_report_final2.pdf。联邦财政部在此之前发布了一份名为《竞业禁止合同:经济效应与政策影响》的调研报告,替白宫预作铺垫。参见U.S. Department of the Treasury, Non-compete Contracts: Economic Effects and Policy Implications (March 2016)。
【8】同上注,第15页。
【9】Dave Jamieson, Jimmy John’s Makes Low-Wage Workers Sign ‘Oppressive’ Noncompete Agreements, HuffPost, Oct. 13, 2014, at https://www.huffpost.com/entry/jimmy-johns-non-compete_n_5978180;New York State Office of the Attorney General, A.G. Schneiderman Announces Settlement With Jimmy John’s To Stop Including Non-Compete Agreements In Hiring Packets, Press Release, June 22, 2016, at https://ag.ny.gov/press-release/2016/ag-schneiderman-announces-settlement-jimmy-johns-stop-including-non-compete.
【10】据经济政策研究院(非政府非营利组织)于2019年的一向调研显示,全美有将近一半(46%)的用人单位对其工作人员采用了某种形式的竞业协议。即使在2014年对11,500名劳动者的调查,已发现当时其中就有18.1%的受访者表示受到了竞业协议的约束。参见Alexander J.S. Colvin and Heidi Shierholz, Noncompete Agreements, Economic Policy Institute Report (December 10, 2019), available at https://files.epi.org/pdf/179414.pdf。详细的论述参见拙著,论竞业协议、劳动就业和市场竞争—美国拟议废除竞业协议对劳动与竞争的冲击,《知产前沿》,2023年12月26日,载于https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/Gwzw-wuF9jyxqpogrDnsWQ。
【11】Federal Trade Commission, Non-Compete Clause Rule, 88 Fed. Reg. 3482, 3484-85 (January 19, 2023)(这是贸委会关于制定《竞业协议条款规则》的草案及说明)。
【12】同上注,第3485页。
【13】Defend Trade Secrets Act of 2016 (a/k/a DTSA), Pub. L. 114–153, 130 Stat. 376 (2016), codified at 18 U.S.C. § 1836 et seq..
【14】调研显示,自2018年到2022年的5年期间,一方面美国的总体商业秘密诉讼案件数量呈现递减趋势,但另一方面依据联邦商业秘密规制的案件比例则持续攀升。参见Lex Machina, Trade Secret Litigation Report (2023);另参见Stout, Trends in Trade Secret Litigation Report 2020, at 22, available at https://www.winston.com/images/content/2/0/v2/203824/trends-in-trade-secret-litigation-report-2020.pdf。
【15】California Business and Professional Code §§ 16600;另参见Nitro-Lift Technologies, L. L. C. v. Howard, 568 U.S. 17 (2012)。
【16】贸委会,同前注11,第3494页(关于这48个管辖区的具体法律条文引据,参见该页注149)。
【17】同前注1,第38362页。
【18】Oregon Revised Statutes § 653.295(1)(a)(A)(effective January 1, 2008); Maine Revised Statutes, Title 26, § 599–A(4) (effective September 19, 2019); Massachusetts General Laws, ch. 149, § 24L(b)(i) (effective January 14, 2021); New Hampshire Revised Statute § 275:70 (effective July 28, 2014); Washington Revised Code § 49.62.020(1)(a)(i) (effective January 1, 2020).
【19】Massachusetts General Laws, ch. 149, § 24L(b)(vii) (effective January 14, 2021); Oregon Revised Statute § 653.295(7)(effective January 1, 2022)。所谓的“园艺休假”就是对“中止”或“吊销”(suspension)的委婉表述,实质上的意义并无不同。
【20】Washington Revised Code § 49.62.020(2)(effective January 1, 2020); Massachusetts General Laws, ch. 149, § 24L(b)(iv)(effective January 14, 2021); Oregon Revised Statute § 653.295(3)(effective January 1, 2022).
【21】同前注15。
【22】同上注,§ 16600.5。
【23】Complaint, Ryan, LLC v. Federal Trade Commission, Case No. 3:24-cv-986 (N.D. Tex April 23, 2024).
【24】Complaint, Chamber of Commerce of the United States of America v. Federal Trade Commission, Case No. 6:24-cv-00148 (E.D. Tex April 24, 2024).此处的违法主张在程序上是指联邦《行政程序法》第706条(5 U.S.C. § 706),在实体上则是指《联邦贸易委员会法》第5条(15 U.S.C. § 45)。
【25】另一个值得关注的发展是纽约州。该州州议会已于2023年9月通过了一个类似贸委会版本的第3100A号州参议院法案,参见Senate Bill S3100A, Prohibits non-compete agreements and certain restrictive covenants, available at https://legislation.nysenate.gov/pdf/bills/2023/S3100A,拟几乎全部禁止竞业协议,但遭到州长凯西·霍楚(Kathleen C. Hochul)的否决。州长的立场是应该设置一个容许与企业高管订立协议的例外,她并试图协商一个能让各方愿意妥协的方案(华尔街的金融企业尤其反对此一立法),但最终因无法同意应以如何的薪资计算作为定义“高管”的基准而作罢。不过法案的原始提案议员尚‧瑞安(Sean M. Ryan)已表示将在2024年的会期卷土重来。参见Luis Ferré-Sadurní, Hochul Planning to Veto Ban on Noncompete Agreements, New York Times, December 23, 2023, at A17, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2023/12/22/nyregion/kathy-hochul-veto-noncompete.html。
【26】同前注1,第38363-38364页。
【27】同前注1,第38363页。
【28】Miller v. Honkamp Krueger Financial Services, Inc., 9 F.4th 1011 (8th Cir. 2021).
【29】同前注1,第38363、38365页。
【30】同前注1,第38420页。
【31】“不可避免披露”法则是指如果原用人单位能举证其离职劳动者替新用人单位工作将不可避免地披露或使用原单位的商业秘密,基于事前保全的要求,法院可对离职劳动者发布暂时或永久禁令,包括在该劳动者到新的单位开始工作之前,禁止其在一定期间内到新的用人单位任职并永久禁止该劳动者泄漏原用人单位的商业秘密。参见J. Thomas McCarthy, Roger E. Schechter, and David J. Franklyn, McCarthy’s Desk Encyclopedia of Intellectual Property (3rd ed.), at 296-297。采纳的17个州是:阿肯色州、康涅狄格州、特拉华州、佛罗里达州、印第安纳州、伊利诺州、爱荷华州、明尼苏达州、密苏里州、新泽西州、纽约州、北卡罗来纳州、俄亥俄州、宾夕凡尼亚州、得克萨斯州、犹它州和华盛顿州,另加上首都哥伦比亚特区;拒绝采纳的5个州是:加利福尼亚州、科罗拉多州、路易斯安那州、马里兰州与弗吉尼亚州,另有28个州尚未表态。参见Phoseon Technology, Inc. v. Heathcote, 2019 WL 7282497, at *11 (D. Or. 2019)。
【32】EarthWeb, Inc. v. Schlack, 71 F.Supp.2d 299 (S.D.N.Y. 1999)(“[The doctrine] potentially requires a court to recognize and enforce a de facto noncompetition agreement to which the former employee is bound, even where no express agreement exists.”).
【33】同上注。法院因此强调,“不可避免披露法则是拟在不受司法欢迎的领域里踩出一条极其狭窄的通道。如无特定劳动者确实窃取的证据,此一法则只能在最特殊的例外情况下适用。至于是否应发布诉前禁令,其中需要考量:(1)涉案的双方用人单位是否为直接的竞争者,提供相同或非常类似的产品或服务;(2)特定劳动者的新职务与原职是否几乎相当,以致可以合理预期为履行其新职要求,几乎难以不使用原用人单位的商业秘密;(3)相关的商业秘密对双方用人单位都具有高度的价值。其他与个别具体案件相关的因素,诸如其所属产业和商业秘密的本质、特性等也都须一并纳入考虑。”
【34】FTC, Fact Sheet on the FTC’s Noncompete Rule, available at https://www.ftc.gov/system/files/ftc_gov/pdf/Non-Compete-Fact-Sheet.pdf.