膨胀遗留的引力波对宇宙微波背景 B 模式极化的贡献具有已知形状,但其振幅取决于特定的膨胀模型。这些来自膨胀引力波的 B 模式尚未被观测到,但探测到它们将极大地帮助我们确定发生的膨胀类型。BICEP2 团队在 2010 年代初发生了一次著名的错误探测。下一代 CMB 实验应该对低至 0.001 甚至更低的张量与标量比(即 r 比)敏感,但从未观测到过来自膨胀的 B 模式。
图片来源:普朗克科学团队
表面上看,考虑到可能存在如此大相径庭的预测,宇宙膨胀似乎无法预测任何情况。对于张量与标量之比 r的幅度,这是正确的,尽管每个模型对r都有自己独特的预测 。然而,我们可以提取一个非常清晰且普遍的预测:引力波(张量)波动的频谱应该是什么样的,以及它们的幅度在我们可以检查的任何尺度上是多少。当我们观察宇宙微波背景上留下的信号时,我们可以稳健地预测这些波动的相对大小从小角度尺度到大角度尺度。除了观察之外,唯一不受约束的是频谱的绝对“高度”,因此也是 r的幅度。
2000 年代中期,NASA/NSF/DOE 成立了一个跨部门工作组,着手规划新一代实验,以测量小角度尺度上宇宙微波背景光的偏振,这些实验专门用于限制 r 并验证或排除各种膨胀模型。许多天文台和实验都是为了实现这一目标而设计和建造的:BICEP、POLARBEAR、SPTpol 和 ACTPOL 等。目标是将 r限制 到约 ~0.001。如果膨胀产生的引力波发出足够大的信号,我们就会看到它们。如果没有,我们会设置有意义的限制并排除整个类别的膨胀模型。随着新的观测数据的出现,理论家开始制作具有大 r 值的模型,这些模型将落在测试区域内,因此与这些实验相关。
根据我们掌握的最敏感的约束条件,从最新的 BICEP/Keck 数据来看,红色阴影区域是通货膨胀模型所允许的全部区域。理论家们一直在研究很快就可以排除的区域(绿色、蓝色),但 r 的可行值可以小到我们构建模型所需的程度。在许多模型中,绿色曲线也可以进一步向下延伸。来源:APS/Alan Stonebreaker,由 E. Siegel 修改
在这张宇宙时间轴/历史图中,BICEP2 合作将大爆炸置于膨胀之前,这是一个常见但无法接受的错误。尽管近 40 年来这一直不是该领域的主流思想,但它可以作为一个例子,说明当今人们由于粗心大意而错误理解了一个众所周知的细节。图片来源:NSF(NASA、JPL、凯克基金会、摩尔基金会、相关机构)——资助的 BICEP2 项目
坦率地说,所有这些断言都是不正确和不负责任的。最糟糕的是,我采访过的每一位提出这些主张的科学家都知道他们是错误的。然而,这些主张仍然由进行这些实验的科学家提出——包括通过流行疗法向公众提出。没有好的方式可以掩饰它:如果它不是自欺欺人,那就是彻头彻尾的学术欺诈。事实上,当一位科学家做出一个夸大其词和过早的断言,经过仔细检查后发现是完全错误的,我们天文学界的一些人称之为“BICEP2”,以他们 在 2014 年宣布的臭名昭著的错误发现命名。
最重要的是,这很可惜。这些实验以如此非凡的精度测量了宇宙微波背景的特性,为我们提供了有关宇宙本质以及在热大爆炸之前、建立和导致热大爆炸的膨胀时代的最佳信息。宇宙膨胀已被充分证实是我们宇宙的起源。它取代了非膨胀、包含奇点的大爆炸,成为我们所有人起源的宇宙学标准模型。尽管存在相反的替代方案,但它们都没有在宇宙膨胀无法实现的地方取得成功。同时,它们都未能重现膨胀的全部成功。
那些只重视荣誉和关注而不重视准确性的科学家无疑会继续做出毫无根据的断言,削弱我们对宇宙的真正了解。但不要被这种说法所愚弄。归根结底,我们通过向宇宙提出有关自身的问题并倾听其反应来了解宇宙中存在的东西。一旦我们放弃这种方法,我们就不得不承认一个令人不安的事实:我们根本不再从事科学研究了。
伊森正在度暑假。请欣赏这篇来自《Starts With A Bang》档案的文章!
If the Big Bang wasn’t the first thing ever, what caused it?
Many contrarians dispute that cosmic inflation occurred. The evidence says otherwise.
The expanding Universe, full of galaxies and the complex structure we observe today, arose from a smaller, hotter, denser, more uniform state. Although the extent of the observable Universe, today, takes us out some 46 billion light-years in all directions, in the distant cosmic past, everything in space was much more compact, closer together, and occupied a much smaller volume, begging the question: what drives the expansion of the Universe, both initially, at the start of the hot Big Bang, and today, at late cosmic times, where the expansion is accelerating?
Credit: C.-A. Faucher-Giguere, A. Lidz, and L. Hernquist, Science, 2008
KEY TAKEAWAYS
Studying the Big Bang tells us how our universe evolved to become this way, but it doesn’t immediately reveal why the Big Bang occurred or what might have preceded it.
Theoretically and observationally, the evidence for cosmic inflation preceding and setting up the Big Bang is incredibly strong and comprehensive.
There are still some new, sensitive things to measure, but the lack of low-hanging fruit doesn’t mean the tree is dead.
Ethan Siegel
Travel the universe with Dr. Ethan Siegel as he answers the biggest questions of all
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For as long as humans have been around, our innate curiosity has compelled us to ask questions about the universe. Why are things the way they are? How did they get to be this way? Were these outcomes inevitable or could things have turned out differently if we rewound the clock and began things all over again? From subatomic interactions to the grand scale of the cosmos, it’s only natural to wonder about it all. For innumerable generations, these were questions that philosophers, theologians, and mythmakers attempted to answer. While their ideas may have been interesting, they were anything but definitive.
Michio Kaku: Quantum computing is the next revolution
Modern science offers a superior way of approaching these puzzles. No longer do we consider the Big Bang, once thought to be the ultimate origin of our Universe, to have occurred at a single moment or event in space and time. We can now ask questions such as “What existed before the Big Bang?” as well as “Why did the Big Bang happen?” When it comes to even the biggest questions of all, science provides us with the best answers we can muster, given what we know and what remains unknown, at any point in time. Here and now, these are the best robust conclusions we can reach.
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A visual history of the expanding Universe includes the hot, dense state known as the Big Bang and the growth and formation of structure subsequently. The full suite of data, including the observations of the light elements and the cosmic microwave background, leaves only the Big Bang as a valid explanation for all we see. As the Universe expands, it also cools, enabling ions, neutral atoms, and eventually molecules, gas clouds, stars, and finally galaxies to form.
Credit: NASA/CXC/M. Weiss
When we look out at the galaxies in the universe today, we find that — on average — the farther away it is, the greater the amount its light is shifted toward longer and redder wavelengths. The longer light spends traveling through the universe before it reaches our eyes, the greater the amount that the expansion of the universe stretches its wavelength; this was how we discovered that the universe is expanding. Because stretched, longer-wavelength light is colder than shorter-wavelength light, the universe cools as it expands. If we extrapolate backward in time instead of forward, we’d expect the early universe to exist in a hotter, denser, more uniform state.
Originally, we took the extrapolation as far back as we could imagine — to infinite temperatures and densities, and an infinitesimally small volume: a singularity. Evolving forward from that initial state, we successfully predicted and later observed:
the leftover radiation from the Big Bang, observable as the cosmic microwave background
the abundance of the light elements before any stars were formed
the gravitational growth of large-scale structure in the universe
However, we also observed things we couldn’t explain if the universe began from a singular state, including why there were no leftover relics from the highest-energy epochs, why the universe had the same properties in opposite directions that could never have exchanged information with one another, and why there was absolutely no spatial curvature, leaving the universe indistinguishable from flat.
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The magnitudes of the hot and cold spots, as well as their scales, indicate the curvature of the universe. To the best of our capabilities, we measure it to be perfectly flat. Baryon acoustic oscillations and the CMB, together, provide the best methods of constraining this, down to a combined precision of 0.4%. To the best we can measure, the universe is indistinguishable from spatially flat.
Credit: Smoot Cosmology Group/LBL
Whenever we reach this scenario — observing properties that our leading theories cannot explain or predict — we are left with two options:
You can pawn off the properties as “initial conditions.” Why is the universe flat? It was born that way. Why is it the same temperature everywhere? Born that way. Why aren’t there high-energy relics? They must not exist. And so on. This option offers no explanation.
You can imagine some sort of dynamics: a mechanism that precedes the state we’ve observed and sets it up, so that it started off with the conditions necessary to create the properties we observe today.
Although it’s a bit controversial to say, the first option is only acceptable when you are certain that the conditions you could have started off with are sufficiently random. For example, solar systems form from instabilities in protoplanetary disks around newly forming stars; that’s random, and so there’s no explanation for why our solar system possesses its particular set of planets. But for the entire universe, choosing that option is tantamount to giving up on dynamics, asserting that there’s no need to even search for a mechanism that could have preceded and set up the hot Big Bang.
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The stars and galaxies we see today didn’t always exist, and the farther back we go, the closer to an apparent singularity the Universe gets, as we go to hotter, denser, and more uniform states. However, there is a limit to that extrapolation, as going all the way back to a singularity creates puzzles we cannot answer.
Credit: NASA, ESA, and A. Feild (STScI)
Fortunately, however, not everyone fell into that solipsistic logical fallacy. If you want to go beyond your current understanding of how things work, all it takes is a new, superior idea. How do you know whether an idea is good enough to supersede our old theory and revolutionize our view of the universe? Believe it or not, there are just three criteria you have to meet:
It has to reproduce every success that the old theory achieved. Every single one, with no exception.
It has to succeed where the old theory didn’t, by successfully explaining the phenomena the old theory couldn’t.
It needs, perhaps most importantly, to make novel predictions that differ from the old theory’s predictions. These novel predictions must then be tested to determine the new idea’s failure or success.
That was precisely what, a little more than 40 years ago, the concept of cosmic inflation (sometimes known as cosmological inflation) set out to do. It hypothesized that before the universe was filled with matter and radiation, it was dominated by energy inherent to the fabric of space itself. That energy caused the universe to expand exponentially and relentlessly. The expansion would stretch space so that it was seemingly flat, causing all directions to have the same temperature because everything was causally connected in the past. Ultimately, this process would place an upper limit on the maximum temperature achieved in the early universe, preventing the formation of high-energy relics.
In the top panel, our modern Universe has the same properties (including temperature) everywhere because they originated from a region possessing the same properties. In the middle panel, the space that could have had any arbitrary curvature is inflated to the point where we cannot observe any curvature today, solving the flatness problem. And in the bottom panel, pre-existing high-energy relics are inflated away, providing a solution to the high-energy relic problem. This is how inflation solves the three great puzzles that the Big Bang cannot account for on its own.
Credit: E. Siegel/Beyond the Galaxy
The initial model of cosmic inflation succeeded where the Big Bang without inflation failed, but it struggled to meet the first criterion, in that it failed to produce a universe that had uniform properties in all directions. However, with the work of the community, class models were swiftly discovered that reproduced the Big Bang’s successes, and that led to a rich era of theoretical exploration. We would model cosmic inflation as a field, and then the laws of physics would enable us to extract the properties imprinted on the universe from any particular model we chose. These details were worked out largely during the 1980s and the 1990s, and are found in a variety of textbooks in the field, including:
Kolb and Turner’s The Early Universe,
John Peacock’s Cosmological Physics,
Liddle and Lyth’s Cosmological Inflation and Large-Scale Structure,
and Scott Dodelson’s Modern Cosmology.
Dodelson’s book became the field’s standard on how cosmic inflation’s imprints are left on the universe, particularly in the cosmic microwave background. If you studied cosmology at the graduate level within the past 30 years, these were many of the seminal primary sources that taught you how to extract some key predictions from inflation that would differ from a universe where inflation did not occur.
The large, medium, and small-scale fluctuations from the inflationary period of the early universe determine the hot and cold (underdense and overdense) spots in the Big Bang’s leftover glow. These fluctuations, which get stretched across the Universe in inflation, should be of a slightly different magnitude on small scales versus large ones: a prediction that was observationally borne out at approximately the ~3% level.
Credit: NASA/WMAP Science Team
In particular, there are six major predictions of cosmic inflation that were definitively extracted before they were ever put to the test. Inflation predicts:
a spectrum of imperfections — density and temperature fluctuations — that are almost, but not perfectly, scale-invariant
a universe that’s coarsely indistinguishable from flat, but that has curvature to it at the ~0.001% level
density imperfections that are 100% adiabatic and 0% isocurvature in nature
fluctuations on super-horizon scales, which are larger than a signal moving at the speed of light in an expanding universe could create